George Orwells 1984 :: essays research papers

George Orwells 1984Introduction- This story takes place in a state called Oceania. The maincharacters introduced atomic number 18 Winston Smith who is a worker on one of the fourbranches of government on Oceania. This four branches are The Ministry of Truthwhere they falsificate or remove all medieval documents such(prenominal) as books, newspapers,magazines, records, tapes and anything containing information about the bygone andare rewritten with the accurate meaning of whatever the Government (known as large-scale Brother) wants it to be. All past records are erased and everyone mustbelieve what the new ones say or else they are caught by the Thought Police. TheThought Police are a group of groundbreaking people who are like the police of our timeexcept that this police can see you every single second of your life through special(a) devices that look like T.V.s called Telescreens. This Telescreens areplaced in the houses of people, outside buildings, parks, walls, anywhere th eycould be put and are always turned on. The Telescreens are constantly bountiful youinformation of the wars won and also telling you what to do and always watchingevery movement you do, no expressions are admitted in Oceania other than hatredor the one Big Brother tells you to. The second branch is called The Ministryof Love where people were punished, tortured and were taught to hate each other.The third branch is called The Ministry of Plenty where economic personal business werehandled, they decided who got how much of something almost always being toolittle of a ration. The last branch is called The Ministry of Peace whichhandled all the war affairs such as where the next bomb they launched would hitand who they needed to destroy next. Big Brother had a slogan that read WAR ISPEACE, FREEDOM IS bondage and IGNORANCE IS STRENGTH. Winston worked in theMinistry of truth where hes job was to rewrite the news on the newspaper calledTimes. Another character is OBrien who helps Wins ton love Big Brother forWinston hated Big Brother. Julia is the girl that falls in love (which is a verybig crime) with Winston. Katharine is Winstons wife though he hasnt seen herfor three years. Eastasia and Eurasia are the two other states chip forpower with Oceania. The proles are the only people who are not controlled somuch by Big Brother, they act as we do and can provoke their own believes, thoughts,feelings or anything they feel like. Emmanuel Goldstein is the boss of anunderground brotherhood that wants to destroy Big Brother.

New Perspectives :: Personal Narratives Writing Education Essays

New Perspectives This is the maiden essay that I wrote for class. I was extremely nervous writing my first college paper but I ended up enjoying it very much. Although my writing skills and technique argon a little unorganized and choppy, I can candidly say that this paper was the one that I most challenged myself creatively. It was pretty hard putting such awesome experiences into mere words, but I did my best. The paper evidently shows my writing level at the beginning of the class, but has been my favorite paper to carry through.Self- Evaluation I really enjoyed writing this paper because I love the topic. I try to re-live each event in my description and make it easier for the reader to relate to. I think the strengths of my paper would probably be my introduction and description. I dont think Im a very strong writer, so I had problems with organizing my ideas and writing my conclusion. If I had more time to write the paper, I would try to add more events that h appened, and how to those events changed me. I think that would better support my thesis, and make a more interesting and developed paper. New Perspectives I am sitting straight up in my seat as the Jeep jostles down a bombed out city street. Dust flies as Aaron shifts into fifth gear and fumbles with his Nokia, trying to take a picture. My aunt is grasping the dash and frantically looking behind her shoulder. Soldiers in olive green uniforms are yelling at us in Turkish and trying to catch up. My Uncle is too fast and we duck into an alley, out of sight. We sit in stunned tranquilize for about thirty seconds, and then burst out laughing. My Aunt Rikki, her fianc Aaron, and I had spent that spring day of 2001 on the Turkish side of the island of Cyprus. We had been attempting to take pictures of the speck inner city of Famagusta. Famagusta had been off limits by the Turkish government since the 1974 invasion. What resulted was the exhilarating chase I just d escribed. The drama of the story is exaggerated.

Apartheid in South Africa Essay -- South African Apartheid

Racism is mans gravest threat to man...the maximum of hatred for a minimum reason. -- Abraham Heschel The Apartheid. An experience that left thousands of Black conspiracy Africans without rights, property, and even lives. Although archetype in its name, the ideas were not original in itself. The ordeal dates back to 1652 when the early Dutch settlers moved into Black territory on a mission to swap the order of civilization (Rotberg 18). Boers (Rotberg 18) as the Dutch called themselves, took up an extreme fundamentalist Calvinist interpretation of religion (Rotberg 19). This religion entails that one be a pattern of all (Rotberg 20). In 1795, English rule came over the Dutch resulting in a conflict between English settlers and Dutch (Afrikaner) settlers. Both groups empowered South Africa and did not share the power equally. In the early 1900s there was a heated battle over the discovery of diamonds which marked a victory for the Dutch (Rotberg 18). However this victory was not w on simply by themselves. Black South Africans assisted in the war. From this, the Dutch felt they needed to reform stricter prohibitions for the Blacks to bond resulting in another reason to separate the Whites from the Non-Whites quoted by a British Native Administrator, it was needed to transform warriors (Blacks) into laborers working for wages (Dugard, Haysom, and Marcus 25). Blacks were considered warriors because of their battle with the British and Dutch (Dugard, Haysom, and Marcus 25). The Dutch, who then changed their name to the Afrikaner National Party, did so as a means to separate themselves from the English as well as ensure affectionate and economical dominations towards all Blacks. This name stayed with them until the late 1940s ... ...e society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if the needs be it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die- Nelson Mandela, freed p risoner after the Apartheid came to an end ( Gordimer, Goldblatt 92). WORKS CITEDDugard, John, Nicholas Haysom, and gibibyte Marcus. The Last Years of Apartheid Civil Liberties in South Africa. United States of America Ford Foundation, 1992.Gordimer, Nadine, David Goldblatt. Lifetimes Under Apartheid. newborn York Alfred A. Knopf, 1986.Pomeroy, William J. Apartheid, Imperialism, and African Freedom. New York International Publishers, 1986.Neame, L.E. The History of Apartheid. New York London House and Maxwell, 1962.Rotberg, Robert I. Ending Autocracy, Enabling Democracy. Cambridge World Peace Foundation, 2002.

Time Square Essay -- American History, New York, Tourists

Today, Times Square is seen as a tourist attraction with muckle traveling to the United States from all over the world to visit New York. Times Square did not always have the glamorous portrayal it has in movies today. In the early twentieth century, Times Square was not a pleasant place and the sounds one would hear would be a lot diametric from todays sounds.In the 1920s Times Square had a brief heyday, from thriving entertainment and being the center of flashy commercial advertising, scarcely Prohibition caused many downfalls in the entertainment industry, forcing theaters and nightclubs to close. Times Square was full of nightclubs and theaters, so as the demand lowered because of the limitation of serving alcohol, these venues needed to oblige their business to continue to bring in customers. Most theaters started to add rooftop gardens, cabarets, and restaurants that can maintain the long hour shifts for extra income (Reichl 53). During the 1927/1928 theater season, sev enty-six theaters were operating in the greater Times Square theater district, but within a decade the number had dropped to thirty-three, with none of the theaters on 42nd street in effect by the end of the 1930s (Reichl 56).Eventually, theaters had to resort to other forms of entertainment certain parts of Times Square were known for the peep shows, burlesque clubs, and video stores (McNamara 20). With a new crowd of people coming to see this type of entertainment, there were different sounds heard on the streets of Times Square then heard today. outside of the theaters one would hear the chatter about the pornographic film being shown, hustlers trying to pick people up for a few hours, and mass handing over passing by.A few decades later, the do... ...ainment attractions and sharing in the booming tourist economy of Times Square (Reichl 160). Kids and adults now enjoy the theatrical performances of many Disney classics on 42nd Street and can end the visit by visiting the t wo-storey Disney Store to purchase various Disney trademarked items. Most people do not realize the history of 42nd Street when they are passing by because they hear the speakers playing the soundtracks to shows, people selling tickets in the box office as well as scalpers trying to find tickets, and anxious kids waiting for the show to begin. The tourist area that 42nd Street has become is flourishing all because of Disney and how the officials looked passed the sour look and negative views of 42md Street. Instead of focusing on the looks and negativity, Disney looked at this project as a business venture with a big picture aspect.

Free Will Essay -- essays papers

set down WillFree Will and its effect on the Greeks, Christians, and RomansFree allow for is defined as Voluntary choice or decision freedom of humans to make choices that are non determined by prior causes or by divine intervention (Websters Online Collegiate Dictionary). Free will had an effect on the Greeks, Christians, and the Romans. Three stories, Oedipus the King, the Bible, and the Aenied, respectively, that we have studied and that fall in each society are examples of how free will is altered by different societies and how it effects their lives.Oedipus the King was written by a Greek, Sophocles. During this time, the Greeks believed that everything was done for the gods, they did not have free will over their lives. There are many examples in the play in which the gods are controlling and tell the people what they should do or how they should live their lives. At the end of the play Oedipus asks Creon to banish him from ThebesOedipus Drive me out of Thebes, in exile.Cre on Not I. Only the gods can give you that.Oedipus Surely the gods hatred me so much-Creon Youll get your wish at once(Oedipus 639 lines 1168-71). Creon and Oedipus discuss here how they have no control over their lives, decisions and all. The gods are the ones who make all of the choices. Oedipus, on with the rest of the Greeks, believed that he had no say in the way his life was going to turn out. He believed that it was destined for his life to end the way it did, with him world cursed and banished from Thebes.The Bible is the word of God for the Christians. There are many examples of free will throughout the Bible. Christians believe that God gave us free will to do as we please, but whatever we do should be ... ...s different in each society, the Greeks, Christians, and Romans were all effected in one way or another. Whether it was the gods controlling their lives or God watching over their lives, free will had a very strong imprint on how each society lived their l ife. Bibliography working CitedGenesis. The Bible. The Norton Anthology World Masterpieces. Ed. Lawall. & Mack. New York W.W. Norton & Co., 1999. 51-72.Merriam Websters Online Collegiate Dictionary. 2000. Merriam Websters Collegiate Dictionary. 8 October 2000. www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionarySophocles. Oedipus the King. The Norton Anthology World Masterpieces. Ed. Lawall. & Mack. New Tork W.W. Norton & Co.,1999. 596-640.Virgil. The Aenied. The Norton Anthology World Masterpieces. Ed. Lawall. & Mack. New York W.W. Norton & Co., 1999. 814-895.

Environmental and Biological Influences in the Classroom :: Teaching Education Essays

Environmental and Biological Influences in the Classroom The fourth grade class that I looked at had a number of different personalities. close to of the differences can be attributed to either purlieual or biological causes. Some of the differences I belief might be something that was due to environment however, after public lecture to the teacher, Mrs. St.Germain, I changed my opinion to being a characteristic due to the biological influences. Some of the differences I noticed I thought where due to genetics or biological causes. One student that I thought exhibited characteristics that may have been due to environment was a miss who exhibited a lot of shyness. She was very relinquish and sat following directions at all times. As a whole the girls in the class where much quieter than the guys, however, this girl was quite a bit to a greater extent quite than all the different girls were. I attribute her shyness to the environment that she was brought up in. I f eel this very strongly after talking to Mrs. St.Germain. The girl was an immigrant from Haiti and had just learned to speak English in the 2nd grade. This late introduction into American society, lifestyle, and way of life is probably rather overwhelming and that causes the environment to add to her shyness. Another student seemed very outgoing and rather loud compared to the appease of the students. When I was coming to the room he introduced himself right away and told me the rest of the class was in the media center. At times he interrupted class and could be a nuisance at times. At first I thought that this could be an effect of an environment where he did not receive enough attention. After talking to Mrs. St.Germain though it turned out that he has ADHD along with another hyper activity disorder and his mother would not allow him to be medicated. The next student that I observed was very smart in math. I was told that he often times beats the teacher when doi ng math multiplication dittos. I think that his intelligence is something that would be passed down through his genes. On the other hand if a learning environment is established than a higher intelligence may result from the learning environment.

A.J. Dbq for Us History Advanced Placement

Before Andrew capital of Mississippi became president, he came off as an average man living in middle class America. He pulled his Average Joe persona off like a pro and got elected into the White house as a man of the people. However, Jackson whitethorn have been a common man, but he wielded power like a king. Kings have a difficult job. They have to walk the fine identify of being strict enough that the subjects wont throw a fit when they dont get what they want but at the same time non being in like manner dictatorial or else the people will rebel. More importantly, a king must be firm in what he believes is right for the country.Jackson greatly increased the power of the presidency. He did not comply with the checks and balance system, and also did not allow North Carolina to nullify the Protective Tariff of 1823. Jackson pink-slipped the old aristocrats (from farming families) from government jobs and replaced them with incompetent people this was known as the spoils system . He was also responsible for the Trail of Tears. Jackson took his job super seriously and used his full power to help the entire country. Andrew Jackson often took advantage of his veto power.He was very willing to veto the laws that the legislative branch came up with. Because of this, Congress learned to ask for his opinions in advance to avoid vetos. All presidents have since had a say on impending legislation. Andrew was not afraid to use his power aggressively if it meant helping the whole country. An example of this is in the Nullification Crisis. In short, this was when Andrew Jackson passed responsibility acts on the states. South Carolina, subsequently years of complaining about it, finally refused to obey the 1832 tariff. They voted to have troops defend them against Jackson.The president responded angrily and sent troops to South Carolina to enforce the tariff bill and asked Congress for a Force Bill to back him up. Andrew Jackson was also responsible for the Trail o f Tears. This was when he forced thousands of Native Americans to relocate. In 1830, Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act. It ordered all Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River to move west of it. This resulted in many of them dying from exposure, disease and starving while migrating. Jackson, of course, did this intending the best for the country.

Computer Viruses: What are They? Essay

Over the past few years, computer viruses has gotten a lot of press attention. According to Levin, There has been quite an outbreak over the ratiocination decade and number of viruses grow by the minute. (Levin 5) FExperts estimated that the Mydoom worm infected approximately a two hundred and fifty thousand workstations in January, 2004. Back in March 1999, the infamouse Melissa virus forced Microsoft and a number of very large companies to completely turn off their email systems. The ILOVEYOU virus in 2000 had a similarly devastating effect.Quite surprising, seeming that both the Melissa and the ILOVEYOU viruses argon considered by professionals as incredibly simple. (HowStuff drop deads) Unfortunately, a lot of material have been sensationalized, and bewildered such as reports that every computer in Seattle has a virus. (Fites Johnston, Kratz 7) Many also mistakenly believe that computer viruses employ artificial in announceigence or are electronic lifeforms. An opposite popular belief is that Viruses can operate even with the power turned off. Levin 5) In reality, computer viruses do not shell out like the common cold.They are not intelligent they do not hold personal grudges against you and it is not very difficult to avoid most exposures. only there have been, and there are now, some pretty nasty viruses floating around peoples computers. (Fites, Johnston, Kratz 7-8) In a nutshell, computer Viruses are computer software programs, just as word processors, spreadsheets, database managers, and so on are also computer programs. This means that they are simply lists of instructions that tell computers what action to execute and precisely when to execute them.They are designed to operate in a manner diametrically opposed to virtually all legitimate software programs. (Levin 6-7) This basically means that they load and run without the user/victims request, and also without warning the user of possible devastating consequences to his computer. They hide wro ng programs called host programs and run when the hosts are run. They are designed to operate secretly so that their missions can be accomplished without, and not be compromised by, user input. (Levin 7) A virus is capable of many things some of which might corrupt, delete or even format your hard disk drive.The newer viruses use the email service to circulate copies of itself to all the contacts of the victims list. We assume a tripartite model of a virus structure that is we assume up to three main factor mechanisms. Infection refers to the way a virus spreads around. This is actually the only mechanism that is mandatory if the program is to be defined as viral the two another(prenominal) mechanisms are both optional. Payload refers to what the virus does aside from replication. Lastly the trigger is the routine that decides whether now is the time to deliver the payload.Take note that we are display a simplified model of a virus, in some circumstances the dissemination of the viral program itself maybe described as the payload. If the virus is at all selective about the circumstance under which it will attempt to infect then the infection also incorporates a trigger mechanism. (Harley, Slade, Gattiker 7) How then do these dreadful viruses spread around? A virus can only spread from sensation computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected computer, for grammatical case by a user sending it over a network or carrying it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, USB drive.Additionally, viruses can spread to other workstations by infecting files on a network or files that can be accessed by another user. (Wikipedia) With the advent of cheesy broadband internet and e-mail connectivity, viruses these days also have found new ways to spread themselves with much more ease. Nowadays, viruses are most soft spread by attachments in e-mail messages or instant messaging messages. That is why it is essential that you never open e-mail attachme nts especially executables unless you are specifically expecting it. Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or audio and video files.Viruses also spread through downloads on the Internet. They can be hidden in downloadable software or other files or programs you might have access to. (Microsoft) Computer viruses on the media tend to grab our attention. On one hand, viruses show us how completely vulnerable we are. A properly engineered virus can have amazing and devastating effects on the Internet. On the other hand, they show how sophisticated and interconnected human beings have become. (HowStuffWorks)BibliographyComputer Virus Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia August 2007 Wikipedia August 28, 2007 Marshall Brain How Computer Viruses Work How Stuff Works How Stuff Works August 27, 2007 Urs Gattiker, David Harley, and Robert Slade Viruses Revealed New York McGraw Hill 1990 Philip Fites, Peter Johnston, and Martin Kratz The Computer Virus Crisis New York Van Nostrand Reinhold 1992. Richard B. Levin The Computer Virus handbook New York McGraw Hill 1990 What is a Computer Virus? Microsoft. com October 23,2006 Microsoft Inc. August 27, 2007

Case Study: Limits on Credit Checks Essay

The use of realisation entry weakens and their true measure on a mortals ability to perform a art is debatable. With more and more companies requesting pre-employment assign bank checks, fewer and fewer applicants are able to secure positions. The lack of securing work is leading to more applicants having poor creed rafts and these poor credit scores then affect the jobs they can acquire. There is a vicious cycle starting that could lead to even more sparing problems. Credit score can be in truth situational and deceiving when all the facts are non present. There are many reasons someone could have poor credit history such as unforeseen medical bills, their credit card was stolen, or there could be a mistake by the credit-reporting agency. These could all convert the beau mondes view on your credit. On the other hand, companies generally do not consider just the credit standings in hiring. The company whitethorn also use background tests and drug testing. Now that so m any companies are development credit as a selection method, states have started to maltreat in and consider prohibiting the use of an applicants credit in respect to hiring.There are four states that do not allow the use of credit and cardinal more looking at banning it. States see this as discrimination based on credit history, or as a polished rights issue since minorities generally have lower credit scores. Keep in mind that the company has to have signed permission to lodge one credit score, so the applicant does not have to give permission. When one does go forward with the credit check, it is important for them to know that the company does not get their amply report or even the scoring. There are many factors for why a company may want to use credit. With so many companies having to kettle of fish with fraud and thievery, it is easy to see why they are taking a proactive stance. Companies use the general thought that people with bad credit are more likely to steal from them than those that do not. Unfortunately, there are no studies to support this reasoning, thus leading to misconceptions of what could be a highly qualified applicant.1. How strong do you think credit checks meet the efficaciousness criteria of (a) reliability (b) rigour (c) ability to reason firmnesss (d) high utility and (e) legality? a. Reliability is something that can in some ways be determined in a credit check. Can and does this individual pay their bills on time shows how reliable they are for recompense. It does not, on the other hand, show ones reliability in the workplace. A credit check will not tell an employer if a person will be reliable to show up to work on time every day. The employer should understand that unreliable credit could be a result of an unknown situation, thus not relying to heavily on one aspect of ones history. b. A credit check has little to no rigourousness on someones willingness or ability to perform a job or task. It would be nearly im possible to determine if a person can do a job based on whether or not one pays monthly bills in a timely manner. A credit check doesnt determine I.Q., knowledge of sales techniques, or body strength, thus demonstrating there is no validity in measuring ones credit score to establish the ability to perform any job or task.An employer would be ill advised to use a credit check in consideration of the skill(s) need to perform in the work place. c. Credit checks are very generalizable when looking at hiring an individual for jobs dealing with money. Can a person who cannot be responsible for their own money management, be responsible for a companys money? A company can generalize that an individual with a history of money problem could be more likely to steal and or commit fraud. Generalizing can also create a false impression of a slap-up and responsible person. Credit checks do not explain the reasoning for their bad credit, such as identity theft or medical bills. While it is easy to accept generalizations as a way to measure ones susceptibility to theft, understanding the reasoning for the lack of responsible payment may provide a more adequate insight into ones character. d. The utility or the cost of the credit check verses the benefit of the reading gain in the credit check differs in the job position.If the company were hiring for a low-level mail clerk it would not be cost effective to pay for the credit history, but if one is hiring for a Chief Financial Officer than the utility would be high and would make economic sense. The company must consider the financial burden and weigh it against the validity of the information gained when using the credit checks as a hiring recourse. e. The legality of using a credit check for a tool for hiring has become very controversial, thus leading to the practice being banned in many states. There are currently 4 states, Hawaii, Illinois, Oregon, and Washington that ban the use of credit checks for pre-employment u sage. There are 14 others states that have or are considering banning the use as well. There are other considerations of legality such does it cause discrimination or breaking theequal opportunity employment laws. Companies should look at every job one by one and make sure the job justifies the need for a credit check and that they meet all legal obligations in doing so.2. For what kind of jobs might a credit check be a useful selection method? For what kind of jobs would it be un face-saving, inappropriate, or unethical? A credit check might be helpful method of selection when hiring for a position that require managing money for a company such as an accountant. Companies may also find it helpful when hiring a position that deals with the allocation of money, the assessment of risk with the companys money or budgeting of company funds. A credit check might be telling of the candidates reliability with money and or their willingness to risk financial ruin. Checking of an applicants credit could be unhelpful, inappropriate, or unethical when hiring for jobs that have nothing to do with handling accounts or company money, such as a construction worker. It could unhelpful when prompting an employee that has been with the company for a substantial amount of time, this could make the employee get untrusted and lead to lack of loyalty to the company.It would be inappropriate to have a credit check run on a minor employee. He or she most likely has no credit history and may not understand what they are allowing the company to check. The practice could be considered unethical if the company is using this as a tool to discriminate against a minority or someone who is disabled. 3. Imagine you are an HR charabanc at a company operating in a state where credit checks of job applicants have been banned. What other selection methods could you use to pick honest and responsible employees? An HR manager could use selections methods such as honesty test, background checks, and drug testing. One would also want to check references from past employers and educational institutes. It is also a good tool to have enough time with the applicant to get a sense of whom they are and conducting a working interview can help the interviewer to get a feel for the applicants. A situational interview could be helpful in determining how one might react in different circumstances.How Would a manager from the Information in this Case?The information in this case could help managers weigh the need for credit checks in their personnel selections. They can reference the pros and consto the reliability, validity and utility of the credit checks as a device in hiring. Managers could also see that the generalizations that come with credit checks may cause them to lose a very viable candidate. Managers will see from this case that credit history can be deceiving when all the information is not available to them. For example if the manager does not know that an applicants iden tity was stolen and that is why their credit appears to be poor than the manger could misjudge the person and lose out on a potentially great employee. The manager could also learn that doing credit checks could lead to prospective legal problems if not handled with care.There are many acts taken against companies for using credit checks as a selection method. Making sure that laws are followed correctly and that the company does not discriminate against anyone can be tricky in the use of credit checks. Many feel that credit checks are discriminating because minorities tend to have lower scores than non-minority groups. No company wants that kind of allegation against them, thus the decision to use credit checks must be considered carefully. A manager could learn that while credit checks are one way to purpose on whom to hire it is not the only way and probably not the most just way.ReferencesArnoldy B. (2007). The spread of the credit check as civil rights issues. The Christian S cience Monitor. Received from http//www.csmonitor.com/2007/0118/p01s03-ussc.html Johnston S. (2011). Can bad credit ruin your job search? Received from http//www.bankrate.com/finance/personal-finance/can-bad-credit-ruin-your-jobsearch.aspx Noe R., Hollenbeck J., Gerhart B.& Wright P. (2011). Fundamentals of Human Resource Management. (4th Ed.) New York. McGraw-Hill Irwin.Rosen L. (2011, April 5) 18 U.S. states consider legislation to limit credit checks for employment screening background checks. Blog. Retrieved from http//hr.toolbox.com/blogs/background-checks/18-us-states-consider-legislation-to-limitcredit-checks-for-employment-screening-background-checks-45600

Senior Geography Project

I have chosen to pick Broadmeadow for the area, as whilst I got robbed, many new(prenominal) community members got robbed on the same day, by the same person. This area seems relevant to my investigation and should provide some interesting results. The area is also very close to home, so I wouldnt aim to go out of my way to get to the dictate needed for investigating. The three aims that I have chosen all relate rear end to the robbery that took place in my home. I want to examine if this was just coincidence or if this is happening across the whole board.I also want to investigate the security measures flock have put into place to counter this criminal aactivity. Aims of the topic 1. To investigate the trends in Crime Rate over the last 5 years 2. To investigate the security measures people have put into place 3. To identify major types of crime Hypotheses 1. Over the last 5 years, I think that the crime arrange has slowly increased, to its peak. On the radio/tv/computer I he ar about different robberies daily. I think this trend give have an doctor across all of NSW and Australia. 2. In Broadmeadow, I think that people will have ssimilar security measures as one another.I think this would be because of council regulation and what other people in the neighborhood have recommended. 3. I think that the most common form of crime in the Broadmeadow area would be either thieving or break and enter. Due to the large amount of criminal aactivity in the area. Plan of Investigation/Methodology Steps for Research 1. Find topic explore if applicable in area 2. Find aims, hypothesize the aims 3. Rationale of the topic 4. Finding of ways to collect and provide examples 5. Walk around Broadmeadow area and put down security measures 6.Interview police on crime rates/ major types of crime in Broadmeadow 7. Research on the internet the verify findings 8. Analyse information 9. survey findings 10. Does this support or refute the hypotheses? 11. What are the implica tions of the findings Explanations 1. Whilst walking around the Broadmeadow area, I will record what security measures owiners have on their houses into a table. This will overwhelm 50 houses from 3 roads Everton Street, Dumaresq Street and Blackall Street. Next I will gather all this data and find the ppercentage of each security measure.Next I will analyse these findings and compare them to findings on the internet and make an appropriate conclusion either supporting or refuting the hypothesis made. 2. I will create an interrogate based on the findings of the previous research. These questions will involve finding statistics on crime rates/major types which I can then relate back to the previous research found. Once the data has been recorded, I will separate these findings into two graphs One graph will show the deviation in in crime rates, the other will show major types of crime and the security measure most affected by this.

How to flunk college

Procrastination is a perfect way to flunk out of college. We all(a) have those fri closings who like to shove off about great they are in college. Those people really bother me. And it is because I give notice never get anything done. It takes me a long time to reach the simplest tasks. I pride myself in being a grade A procrastinator. Because of a room being messy, daydreaming, and interacting with people through social media will sponsor anyone perfect the art of wasting time and procrastination.I am not a very messy person, but I do not unremarkably keep my room clean 100 percent of the time either. Many times I have opted to put away my clothes, clean out my binder, pack my lunch for the next day, and take a shower after school before I get to my homework. Doing all these activities takes a while, and I usually end up doing all of them on nights when I have a lot of homework, or if I have a test the next day. Any sheath of cleaning or household chore would work though, suc h as scrubbing the shower, vacuuming, or dusting.Thus, lesson number one placing all other activities in front of school work will kill your chances of work being completed. Another excellent way to waste time is to daydream. I can sit for an moment or more before I realize that I should be doing something else. I usually think about something that happened that day, and then imagine another demonstrable ending. Or I will think about another football game, and think about what will happen when the game starts.Sometimes I pick up out the window and look at all the leaves, plants, or even the grass in my backyard. This is a great procrastination method when especially when all you can think about is something else. Lesson number two pondering on other things will not get my work done. The best way to prolong is interacting with other people through social media. Everyone does it, and there is no denying that Facebook and Twitter have caused more than there fair share of failures. I am no exception.I will get on my phone all day knowing I have work to do, yet in the morning I will ask myself why. Here I am rite now, a casualty of social media, typing up this essay for you at the very uttermost(a) minute. Finally, lesson number three social media is the prime way to ensure that I will flunk college. There is no denying a messy room, daydreaming, and social media can ruin a college career. If we continue to do these things, then it will almost ensue that we will not be coming back for another semester of education.

Analysis of Maus: the Animal Behavioral Stance Essay

I want to use Maus as my analysis. I rule like you can gain insight into this blend more easily because the connections Spiegelman used was so closely related to how people view society. The intentionality behind it so obvious, trying to tell the story of a World War Two survivor in way that people could relate to without getting too emotionally evolved. Its like Arts psychiatrist says to Art, Im not talking about YOUR book now, but look at how some books have already been written about the Holocaust. Whats the point? People havent changed Maybe they need a newer, bigger Holocaust. I esteem what he was trying to say is that most people dont understand what those survivors really went through. There is about a thousand different depictions of the Holocaust, but none that tell the story like Maus does.Its something about the way you see through Vladeks eyes, as a mouse rather than human, that possibly makes it easier for us to get it. However, the types of animals he used made it a little complicated to not get involved emotionally. Viewing the Jews as vermin and the Germans as cats trying to exterminate those vermin, made it even more real, I felt. The way people discover like the Polish be dirty people (pigs) and how Americans feel they can conquer or take anything they feel (dogs), just adds to the subjectivity of the situation. We want to feel for the mice as the cats treat them so, but we only know mice as vermin, not hopeless creatures being picked on, or exterminated in this case, by the creature in higher power.On top of that, I believe the behavioral Stance (animals are intelligent and are capable of associative learning, that is they are capable of grasping that certain actions or a certain chain of events are linked to others) applies to this novel because when Vladek is continually finding a way to provide or hide his family, shows that he has an understanding of the horrors that could possibly happen to him if they were captured.

Credit Appraisal Process

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapters 1. INTRODUCTION * Reason for selecting the bewilder * Scheme of the puke * Research Methodology * Limitation of the study 2. CREDIT POLICY OF COMMERCIAL cant * Commercial depositing concerns and its objectives * Re pennyimeime insurance developments regarding deposit quote * Changing phase of money box citation * Trends of bank honorable mention in India * Procedure for providing bank de nonation * char speller Appraisal 3. THE PROFILE OF THE ORGANIZATION OF PNB * Indian banking heavens & its major ch altoge at that placenges * Punjab National swear at a glance * Mission and Vision * organizational structure of PNB 4. CREDIT PHILOSOPHY & POLICY WITH REGARDS TO PNB deferred payment philosophy * Credit insurance policy * Introduction to gives * variety of brings * Building up of a proposal * Requirements as per constitution of borrower * fiscal Appraisal 5. ANALYSIS AND edition OF DATA * Credit Appraisal techniques * Process of denota tion judgement for providing currency honorable mention * Appraisal techniques for sell gives 6. CONCLUSION * Conclusion * BIBLIOGRAPHY Introduction The mesh year pecuniary crises brook be interpose the main(prenominal) driving for recession which was started in 2006 from US and was spread across the dry land. The world economy has been majorly as unificati iodineed from the crisis.The securities in stress replacement wee-wee f exclusivelyen down drastically which has become the root cause of bankruptcy of numerous pecuniary institutions and idiosyncratics. The root cause of the frugal and financial crisis is acknowledgment negligence of big companies and individuals which has badly wedged the world economy. So in the present scenario analysing ones credit worth has become really in-chief( digestnominal) for any financial institution before providing any form of credit facility so that such situation doesnt arise in near future again. psychoanalysis of the credit worthiness of the borrowers is known as Credit Appraisal.In lay to downstairsstand the credit appraisal transcription followed by the banks this escort has been conducted. The roam has analysed the credit appraisal procedure with special reference to Punjab National assert which includes knowing active the diverse credit facilities provided by the banks to its customers, how a loan proposal is being necessitate, what argon the formalities that is to be satisfied and almost all- big(a)ly knowing ab arrive at the diverse credit appraisal techniques which atomic number 18 contrastive for each type of credit facility. in the beginning going further it is necessary to to a lower placestand the need and radical framework of the project. therefore this chapter provides an introduction to the topic, objective of the project, reasons for selecting the project and the basic structure and framework how the project issuing. In found to understand the importance o f the topic selected an introduction to the overview of the commercial bank , its give-up the ghosts, and present trends and harvest in bank credit atomic number 18 infallible and it is covered in this chapter. Reasons for selecting the project Whenever an individual or a carve upicipation uses a credit that convey they are borrowing specie that they promise to repay with in a pre-decided period.In mold to assess the repaying capability i. e. to evaluate their credit worthiness banks use various techniques that differ with the diametrical types of credit facilities provided by the bank. In the current scenario where it is seen that big companies and financial institutions deem been bankrupted just because of credit default so Credit Appraisal has become an important aspect in the banking field and is gaining prime importance. It is the accident of credit defaults that has aban through with(p)d rise to the financial crisis of 2008-09.But in India the credit default is c omparatively slight that otherwise countries such as US. One of the reasons ahead(p) to this whitethorn be good appraisal techniques apply by banks and financial institutions in India. Eventually the importance of this project is in the first place to understand the credit appraisal techniques used by the banks with special reference to Punjab National posit. Scheme of the project It covers the objective and structure of the project which is discussed as follows- Objective of the project The overall objective of this project is to under stand the current credit appraisal system used in banks.The Credit Appraisal system has been analysed as per the different credit facilities provided by the bank. The detai direct explanation intimately the techniques and process has been discussed in detail in the further chapters. Structure or Plan of the project The project first of all makes a study ab tabu the commercial banks- its important functions. Then it talllights on the concept o f Bank Credit & its repenny trends. The project hence proceeds towards the contri unlesse procedure of banks and here it highlights about credit appraisal being the first criterion in build up of a loan proposal.Then it discusses the bank credit policy with respect to Punjab National bank where the project was under taken. The project then proceeds with the review of writings i. e. review of some past work regarding credit appraisal by various researchers. The project then moves towards research methodological analysis where it covers the information regarding the type of entropy collected and the theoretical concepts used in the project are discussed in detail. Then the project proceeds with the next chapter consisting of the digest part which covers the analysis of various techniques used by the banks for the purpose of credit appraisal.Then the project moves to its next chapter i. e. fall outings where some results found out are interpreted and then touching on to the depart and the final chapter i. e. the suggestions and conclusions where some steps are suggested to be implemented to increase the work capability and to sink to work pressure Commercial banks and its objectives A commercial bank is a type of financial intermediator that provides checking depicts, nest egg accounts, and money food trade accounts and that accepts time deposits.Some use the term commercial bank to refer to a bank or a division of a bank in general dealing with deposits and loans from corporations or abundant businesses. This is what people normally call a bank. The term commercial was used to distinguish it from an coronation bank. Commercial banks are the oldest, biggest and fastest growing financial intermediaries in India. They are withal the most important depositories of human beings savings and the most important disbursers of finance. Commercial banking in India is a unique banking system, the like of which exists nowhere in the world.The truth o f this statement becomes clear as one studies the philosophy and attackes that devour contri unlessed to the evolution of banking policy, programmes and barter operations in India. The banking system in India works under constraints that go with social control and globe ownership. The public ownership of banks has been wind in three stages 1995, july 1969 and April, 1980. Not only the public sector banks but to a fault the unavowed sector and outside(prenominal) banks are required to meet the targets in respect of sectoral deployment of credit, regional distribution of branches, and regional credit deposit ratios.The operations of banks fix been determined by confidential information bank scheme, Differential crop of wager scheme, Credit authorization scheme, inventory norms and bring systems prescribed by the authorities, the formulation of credit plans, and helper area approach. Commercial Banks in India get to a special theatrical role in India. The privileged ro le of the banks is the result of their unique features. The liabilities of Bank are money and therefore they are important part of the defrayal mechanism of any country.For a financial system to mobilise and allocate savings of the country successfully and productively and to facilitate daytime-to-day transactions there must be a class of financial institutions that the public views are as safe and convenient outlets for its savings. The structure and on the job(p) of the banking system are organic to a countrys financial stability and economic harvest-time. It has been rightly claimed that the diversification and development of Indian Economy are in no small measure due(p) to the active role banks reach compete financing economic activities of different sectors.Major objectives of commercial banks Bank Credit The borrowing capacity provided to an individual by the banking system, in the form of credit or a loan is known as a bank credit. The quantity bank credit the indivi dual has is the sum of the borrowing capacity each lender bank provides to the individual. The ope evaluate paradigms of the banking industry in general and credit dispensation in particular imbibe gone through a major upheaval. * Lending evaluate impart fallen sharply. * Traditional process and earning such as incorporated credit has been either slow or non profitable as before. Banks moving into retail finance, pastime rate on the once attractive retail loans in addition started coming down. * Credit take chancess has went up and sore types bumps are surfaced Types of credit- Bank in India provide mainly picayune term credit for financing works capital needs although, as volition be seen subsequently, their term loans select increase over the years. The various types of processions provide by them are (a) edge Loans, (b) cash credit, (c) overdrafts, (d) fill Loans , (e) purchase and price reductioning of commercial bills, and, (f) instalment or hire purchase cre dit. Volume of Credit-Commercial banks are a major citation of finance to industry and commerce. Outstanding bank credit has gone on increase from Rs 727 crore in 1951 to Rs 19,124 crore in 1978, to Rs 69,713 crore in 1986, Rs 1,01,453 crore in 1989-90 , Rs 2,82,702 crore in 1997 and to Rs 6,09,053 crore in 2002. Banks have introduced some(prenominal) innovative schemes for the disbursement of credit. Among such schemes are small town adoption, gardening development branches and equity fund for small units. Recently, most of the banks have introduced attractive education loan schemes for pursuing studies at home or abroad.They have introduced attractive educational loan schemes for pursuing studies at home or abroad. They have moved in the direction of bridging accepted defects or gaps in their policies, such as self-aggrandising too much credit to large measure industrial units and commerce and bounteous too little credit to agriculture, small industries and so on. The hab itual welkin Banks are still the leading lendersthough growth has declined compared to previous run. The credit growth rate has dipped sharply in foreign and private banks compared to previous quarter. In all, the credit growth has slipped in this quarter. Credit (YOY Growth)March 28 2008 March 27 2009 Public arena Banks 22. 5 20. 4 The rates have gone down compared to previous quarter when it was seen that there was no changes in loan rates in private and foreign banks. But then compared to rate cuts through with(p) by RBI, they still need to go tear down. Table 16 Reduction in pose and Lending Rates (October 2008 April 2009*) (Basis points) Bank Group Deposit Rates Lending Rates (BPLR) Public Sector Banks 125-250 125-225 Private Sector Banks 75-200 one C-125 Five Major external Banks century-200 0-100 BPLR Oct 08 Mar 09 Apr 09 Change (from Oct to Apr) Public Sector Banks 13. 75-14. 75 11. 50-14. 00 11. 50-13. 50 125-225 Private Sector Banks 13. 75-17. 75 12. 75-16. 75 12. 50-16. 75 100-125 Five Major Foreign Banks 14. 25-16. 75 14. 25-15. 75 14. 25-15. 75 0-100 Sector-wise credit points credit has increased to agriculture, industry and real estate whereas has declined to NBFCs and Housing. A bank aggroup wise sectoral allocation is also given which suggests private banks have increases exposure to agriculture and real estate but has declined to industry.Public sector banks have increased allocation to industry and real estate. There is a much detailed analysis in the macroeconomic composingreleased before the mo last(a)ary policy. Sector As on February 15, 2008 As on February 27, 2009 % share Variations % share Variations in total (per cent) in total (per cent) Agriculture 9. 2 16. 4 13 21. 5 Industry 45. 2 25. 9 52. 5 25. 8 Real Estate 3. 1 26. 7 8. 5 61. 4 Housing 7. 3 12 4. 7 7. 5 NBFCs 5. 7 48. 6 6. 6 41. 7 Overall Credit 100 22 100 19. 5 To sum up, the credit conditions fronts to have worsened aft(prenominal) January 2009.The ra tes have declined but modify has non really picked up. However, the question still detains whether credit decline is because banks are not contribute (supply) or becausepeople/corporates are not borrowing (lack of demand). It is usually seen that all financial variables as lead indicators say if credit growth (along with other fin indicators) is picking, actual growth bequeath also rise. However, it is actually seen the relation is far from clear. In fact, the financial indicatorshardly help predict any change in business cycle. most(prenominal) rise in good times and fall in bad times.Most financial indicators failed to predict this planetary financial crisis and kept rising making everyone all the more complacent. Recent policy developments Regarding Bank Credit Bank bring was done for a long time by assessing the working capital needs based on the concept of MPBF (maximum permissible bank finance). This practice has been with haggard with the notion from April 15th 199 7 in the sense that the date, banks have been left free to choose their own method ( from the method such as turnover , cash budget, present MPBF , or any other theory) of assessing working great(p) necessary of the borrowers.The cash credit system has been the bane, yet it has exhibited a remarkable strength of survival all these years. In spite of many efforts which were direct in nature, only a slow progress has been do to reduce its importance and increase bill financing. Therefore a concrete and direct policy step was taken on April 21, 1995 which made it mandatory for banks, consortia, syndicates to restrict cash credit components to the prescribed limit , the dimension being given in the form of a short term loan, which would be a demand loan for a maximum period of one year, or in matter of seasonal industries , for six-spot months.The by-line rates on the cash credit and loan components are to be fixed in accordance with the prime modify rates fixed by the banks. Th is loan system was first made applicable to the borrowers with an MPBF of Rs 20 crore and above and in their case , the ratio of cash credit (loan) to MPBF was progressively reduced(increased) from 75 (25) per cent in April 1995 , to 60 (40) percent in phratry 1995, 40 (60) per cent in April 1996 , and 20 (80) percent in April 1997.With the with pass wateral of instructions about the MPBF in April 1997 , the prescribed cash credit and loan components came to be related to the working capital limit arrived in banks as per the method of their choice. With effect from September 3, 1997, the RBI has permitted banks to raise their existing exposure limit to a business group from 50% to 60% the additional 10% limit being exclusively meant for investment in infrastructure projects. The term lending by banks also has subject to the limits fixed by RBI. In 1993, this limit was elevated from Rs 10 crore to Rs 50 crore in case of a oan for a single project by a single bank, and from Rs one hundred fifty crore to Rs 200 crore for a single project by all the banks. The latter limit was subsequently raised to Rs 500 crore in the case of general projects and Rs 1000 crore for power projects. From September3, 1997 these caps on term lending by banks were removed subject to their compliance with the providential exposure norms. The banks can invest in and underwrite shares and debentures of corporate bodies. At present, they can invest five percent of their incremental deposits in equities of companies including other banks.Their investment in shares/ Bonds of DFHI, Securities trading Corporation of India (STCI), all Indian financial institutions and tie ups (debentures) and preference shares of the companies are excluded from this ceiling of five per cent with affect from April 1997 . From the selfsame(prenominal) date banks could extend loans within this ceiling to the corporate against shares held by them. They could also produce overdraft facilities to stock brokers registered with help of SEBI against shares and debentures held by them for nine months without change of ownership. CHANGING PHASE OF BANK CREDIT-A study group headed by Shri Prakash Tandon, the then Chairman of Punjab National Bank, was constituted by the RBI in July 1974 with eminent personalities drawn from leading banks, financial institutions and a wide cross-section of the industry with a view to study the undefiled gamut of Banks finance for working capital and suggest ways for optimum utilization of Bank credit. This was the first expand attempt by the underlying bank to organize the Bank credit. Most banks in India even right away continue to look at the needs of the corporate in the light of methodology recommended by the Group.The report of this group is widely known as Tandon Committee report. The weaknesses in the cash Credit system have persisted with the non-implementation of one of the crucial recommendations of the Committee. In the background of credit worki ng out seen in 1977-79 and its ill effects on the economy, RBI appointed a working group to study and suggest- i) Modifications in the Cash Credit system to make it amenable to better centering of situations by the Bankers and ii) Alternate type of credit acilities to batten better credit discipline and co relation between credit and production. The Group was headed by Sh. K. B. undertaking of RBI and was named Chore Committee. Another group headed by Sh. P. R. Nayak (Nayak Committee) was entrusted the job of aspect into the difficulties faced by minor Scale Industries due to the sophisticated nature of Tandon Chore Committee recommendations. His report is applicable to units with credit requirements of less than Rs. 50 lacs.The recommendations made by Tandon Committee and reinforced by Chore Committee were implemented in all Banks and Bank Credit became much more organized. However, the recommendations were perceived as too strict by the industry and there has been a contin uous clamor from the Industry for movement from mandatory control to a voluntary market related restraint. With in the altogether liberalization of economy and reforms in the financial sector, RBI has given the freedom to the Banks to work out their own norms for inventory and the earlier norms are now to be taken as guidelines and not a mandate.In fact, beginning with the slack season credit policy of 1997-98, RBI has also given full freedom to all the Banks to devise their own method of assessing the short term credit requirements of their clients and grant lines of credit accordingly. Most banks, however, continue to be guided by the principles enunciated in Tandon Committee report. Trends of Bank Credit in India The face of Indian banking has changed radically in the last decade. A perusal of the grassroots Statistical Returns submitted by banks to the Reserve Bank of India shows that between 1996 and 2005, personal loans have been the fastest growing as stigmatize, increasin g from 9. per cent of the total bank credit in 1996 to 22. 2 per cent in 2005. Of course, this is partly due to the huge rise in housing loans, which rose from 2. 8 per cent of the bank credit to 11 per cent over the period, but other personal loans comprising loans against fixed deposits, gold loans and unsecured personal loans also rose from 6. 1 per cent to 10. 7 per cent. Other categories whose share increased were loans to professionals and loans to finance companies. In contrast, there has been a sharp decline in the share of lendings to industry. Credit to small scale industries fell from 10. per cent of the total in 1996 to 4. 1 per cent in 2005. Reasons for declining trend of bank credit * A major share of the economic growth has been led by the expansion of the service sector * enceinte long suit and investment intensity required for growth in the current economic con text countersign may not be as high as it used to be in the past. * In manufacturing sector more effic ient utilization of existing capacities contributed to the sectoral growth rather rather than any large addition of extraneous capacities. The consequential increase in the demand for credit was also subdued. Greater and cheaper avenues for credit resulted in a bigger share of disintermediation being resorted to by large borrowers. The other trend has been the actual drop in the share of homespun credit, while the share of metropolitan centres has increased. While bankers say that up gradation of rural centres into semi-urban could be one reason (the share of semi-urban centres has gone up), it is also true that the reforms have been urban-centric and have tended to put across the metros more. The number of rural bank offices fell from 32,981 in March 1996 to 31,967 by March 2005.The states have been the main beneficiaries of bank credit are the northern region as it has increased its share from 18. 7 per cent of the total credit in 1996 to 22. 2 per cent in 2005. As it was see n that Delhis share went up from 9. 5 per cent to 12. 1 per cent over the period. This is not due to food credit, the account of which is maintained in Delhi. Clearly, the national capital has gained a lot from liberalisation. Trends for the year 2008-09 The come deposits of scheduled commercial banks have expanded during 2008-09 at a somewhat slower rate (19. %) than in 2007-08 (22. 4%). Within aggregate deposits demand deposits have shown an absolute fall (-Rs 4,179 crore) in contrast to the sizeable increase (Rs 94,579 crore or by 22%) in 2007-08,. On the other hand, time deposits have shown an accelerated increase of 22. 6% (or Rs 647,806 crore) as against 21. 8% (Rs 512,844 crore) in the previous year. In the investment portfolio of banks, the expansion during 2008- 09 at Rs 194,031crore has been much lower than the expansion of Rs 340,250 crore as increase in net bank credit to regimen under onetary data for the same period. This has happened because the latter has a sizeab le measuring rod of RBI credit to government following the increased plain-spoken market operations. Finally, there has occurred considerable slowdown in bank credit expansion. Because of comparatively higher procurance of foodgrains, food credit has expanded by Rs 1,812 crore during 2008-09 as against an absolute fall of Rs 2,121 crore in 2007-08. Non-food credit growth at Rs 406,287 (17. 5%) has been slower than in the previous year at Rs 432,846 (23. 0%).Procedure for providing Bank Credit- Banks offers different types of credit facilities to the eligible borrowers. For this, there are several procedures, controls and guidelines laid out. Credit Appraisal, Sanctions, Monitoring and Asset recovery wariness comprise the entire gamut of activities in the lending process of a bank which are clear shown as below Source- Self constructed From the above chart we can see that Credit Appraisal is the nub and the basic function of a bank before providing loan to any person/company, etc.It is the most important aspect of the lending procedure and therefore it is discussed in detail as below. Credit Appraisal implication The process by which a lender appraises the creditworthiness of the prospective borrower is known as Credit Appraisal. This normally involves appraise the borrowers payment history and establishing the quality and sustainability of his income. The lender satisfies himself of the good intentions of the borrower, usually through an interview. * The credit requirement must be assessed by all Indian Financial Institutions or specialised institution set up for this purpose. Wherever financing of infrastructure project is taken up under a pocket billiards / syndication arrangement banks exposure shall not exceed 25% * Bank may also take up financing infrastructure project independently / exclusively in respect of borrowers /promoters of esteem with excellend past record in project implementation. * In such cases due diligence on the inability o f the projects are considerably defined and assessed. State government guarantee may not be taken as a substitute for satisfactory credit appraisal.The important thing to remember is not to be overwhelmed by marketing or profit centre reasons to book a loan but to take a proportiond view when booking a loan, taking into account the risk takings aspects. Generally everyone becomes optimistic during the upswing of the business cycle, but tend to forget to see how the borrower leave alone be during the downturn, which is a short-sighted approach. Furthermore greater emphasis is given on financials, which are usually outdated this is further exacerbated by the fact that a descriptive approach is usually taken, rather than an analytical approach, to the credit.Thus a forward looking approach should also be adopted, since the loan will be repaid primarily from future cash flows, not historic performance however both can be used as good refund indicators. Indian Banking Sector Its Ma jor Challenges It is well recognised by the world that India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Evidence from across the world suggests that a sound and evolved banking system is required for sustained economic development. The last decade has seen many positive developments in the Indian banking sector.The policy makers, which comprise the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Ministry of finance and related government and financial sector regulatory entities, have made several notable efforts to ameliorate regulation in the sector. The sector now compares favourably with banking sectors in the region on metrics like growth, profitability and non-performing assets (NPAs). A a few(prenominal) banks have established an outstanding track record of innovation, growth and protect creation. This is reflected in their market valuation. However, improved regulations, innovation, growth and value creation in the sector remain limited to a small part of it.The cost of bankin g intermediation in India is higher and bank perspicacity is far lower than in other markets. Indias banking industry must strengthen itself significantly if it has to post the modern and vibrant economy which India aspires to be. While the onus for this change lies mainly with bank cautions, an enabling policy and regulatory framework will also be critical to their success. The failure to respond to ever-changing market realities has stunted the development of the financial sector in many developing countries.A weak banking structure has been unable to fuel continued growth, which has harmed the long-term health of their economies. In this white paper, we emphasise the need to act both decisively and quickly to build an enabling, rather than a limiting, banking sector in India. Indian banks have compared favourably on growth, asset quality and profitability with other regional banks over the last few years. The banking index has grown at a compounded annual rate of over 51 per cent since April 2001 as compared to a 27 per cent growth in the market index for the same period. form _or_ system of government makers have made some notable changes in policy and regulation to help strengthen the sector. These changes include change prudential norms, enhancing the payments system and integrating regulations between commercial and co-operative banks. However, the cost of intermediation remains high and bank penetration is limited to only a few customer plane sections and geographies. While bank lending has been a significant driver of GDP growth and employment, periodic instances of the failure of some weak banks have oft threatened the stability of the system.Structural weaknesses such as a fragmented industry structure, restrictions on capital availableness and deployment, lack of institutional jut infrastructure, restrictive labour laws, weak corporate governance and ineffective regulations beyond Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs), unless intercommunicat e, could seriously weaken the health of the sector. Further, the inability of bank managements (with some notable exceptions) to improve capital allocation, increase the productivity of their service platforms and improve the performance ethic in their organisations could seriously affect future performance.India has a better banking system in place Vis a Vis other developing countries, but there are several issues that need to be ironed out. Major challenges of Indian banking sector are mentioned below. Interest rate risk Interest rate risk can be defined as exposure of banks net interest income to adverse movements in interest rates. A banks balance sheet consists mainly of rupee assets and liabilities. Any movement in domestic interest rate is the main source of interest rate risk. Over the last few years the exchequer departments of banks have been responsible for a substantial part f lettuce made by banks. Between July 1997 and Oct 2003, as interest rates fell, the reach on 1 0-year government bonds (a barometer for domestic interest rates) fell, from 13 per cent to 4. 9 per cent. With yields falling the banks made huge profits on their bond portfolios. Now as yields go up (with the rise in inflation, bond yields go up and bond prices fall as the debt market starts factoring a possible interest rate hike), the banks will have to set aside notes to mark to market their investment. This will make it difficult to show huge profits from treasury operations.This concern becomes much stronger because a substantial dowry of bank deposits remain invested in government bonds. Banking in the recent years had been reduced to a trading operation in government securities. Recent months have shown a rise in the bond yields has led to the profit from treasury operations falling. The latest quarterly reports of banks clearly show several banks making losses on their treasury operations. If the rise in yields continues the banks might end up posting huge losses on th eir trading books.Given these facts, banks will have to look at alternative sources of investment. Interest rates and non-performing assets The stovepipe indicator of the health of the banking industry in a country is its level of NPAs. Given this fact, Indian banks seem to be better placed than they were in the past. A few banks have even managed to reduce their net NPAs to less than one percent (before the flowr of Global Trust Bank into Oriental Bank of commerce OBC was a zero NPA bank). But as the bond yields start to rise the chances are the net NPAs will also start to go up.This will happen because the banks have been making huge provisions against the money they made on their bond portfolios in a scenario where bond yields were falling. Reduced NPAs generally gives the impression that banks have strengthened their credit appraisal processes over the years. This does not seem to be the case. With increasing bond yields, treasury income will come down and if the banks wish to make large provisions, the money will have to come from their interest income, and this in turn, shall bring down the profitability of banks. Competition in retail bankingThe entry of impudently generation private sector banks has changed the entire scenario. Earlier the household savings went into banks and the banks then lent out money to corporate. Now they need to sell banking. The retail division, which was earlier ignored, is now the most important of the lot, with the banks spring over one another to give out loans. The consumer has never been so lucky with so many banks offering so many products to choose from. With supply far exceeding demand it has been a go to the bottom, with the banks undercutting one another.A lot of foreign banks have already burnt their fingers in the retail game and have now decided to get out of a few retail segments completely. The nimble footed bracing generation private sector banks have taken a lead on this front and the public sector ban ks are trying to play catch up. The PSBs have been losing business to the private sector banks in this segment. PSBs need to figure out the means to generate profitable business from this segment in the old age to come. The urge to intermingle In the recent past there has been a lot of talk about Indian Banks lacking in scale and size.The State Bank of India is the only bank from India to make it to the itemisation of Top 100 banks, globally. Most of the PSBs are either looking to pick up a littler bank or waiting to be picked up by a larger bank. The central government also seems to be game about the issue and is seen to be encouraging PSBs to merge or choose other banks. Global evidence seems to suggest that even though there is great enthusiasm when companies merge or get acquired, majority of the mergers/acquisitions do not really work. So in the zeal to merge with or acquire another bank the PSBs should not let their familiar sense take a back seat.Before a merger is carrie d out cultural issues should be looked into. A bank based primarily out of North India might want to acquire a bank based primarily out of South India to increase its geographical presence but their cultures might be very different. So the integration process might become very difficult. Technological compatibility is another issue that needs to be looked into in details before any merger or acquisition is carried out. Impact of BASEL-II norms Banking is a commodity business. The margins on the products that banks offer to its customers are extremely thin vis a vis other businesses.As a result, for banks to earn an able homecoming of equity and compete for capital along with other industries, they need to be highly supplementd. The primary function of the banks capital is to absorb any losses a bank suffers (which can be written off against banks capital). Norms set in the Swiss town of Basel determine the ground rules for the way banks around the world account for loans they giv e out. These rules were formulated by the Bank for International Settlements in 1988. Essentially, these rules tell the banks how much capital the banks should have to cover up for the risk that their loans might go bad.The rules set in 1988 led the banks to differentiate among the customers it lent out money to. Different weightage was given to various forms of assets, with zero percentage weightings being given to cash, deposits with the central bank/govt. etc, and 100 per cent weighting to claims on private sector, fixed assets, real estate etc. The summation of these assets gave us the risk-weighted assets. Against these risk weighted assets the banks had to maintain a ( course I + Tier II) capital of 9 per cent i. e. every Rs100 of risk assets had to be backed by Rs 9 of Tier I + Tier II capital.To put it simply the banks had to maintain a capital adequacy ratio of 9 percent. The chore with these rules is that they do not distinguish within a category i. e. all lending to priv ate sector is assigned a 100 per cent risk weighting, be it a company with the best credit rating or company which is in the doldrums and has a very low credit rating. This is not an efficient use of capital. The company with the best credit rating is more likely to repay the loan vis a vis the company with a low credit rating.So the bank should be setting aside a far lesser amount of capital against the risk of a company with the best credit rating defaulting vis a vis the company with a low credit rating. With the BASEL-II norms the bank can decide on the amount of capital to set aside depending on the credit rating of the company. Credit risk is not the only type of risk that banks face. These days the operating(a) risks that banks face are huge. The various risks that come under operational risk are competition risk, technology risk, casualty risk, crime risk etc. The original BASEL rules did not take into account the operational risks.As per the BASEL-II norms, banks will have to set aside 15 per cent of net income to protect themselves against operational risks. Over the last few years, the falling interest rates, gave banks very little inducement to lend to projects, as the return did not compensate them for the risk involved. This led to the banks getting into the retail segment big time. It also led to a lot of banks playing it safe and putting in most of the deposits they collected into government bonds. Now with the bond party over and the bond yields starting to go up, the banks will have to concentrate on their core function of lending.The banking sector in India needs to tackle these challenges successfully to keep growing and strengthen the Indian financial system. Furthermore, the interference of the central government with the functioning of PSBs should stop. A fresh autonomy package for public sector banks is in offing. The package seeks to provide a high degree of freedom to PSBs on operational matters. This seems to be the right way to go for PSBs. The growth of the banking sector will be one of the most important inputs that shall go into making sure that India progresses and becomes a global economic super power. Products and Services Corporate banking * Personal banking * Industrial finance * Agriculture finance * support of trade * International banking * Home loan * Auto loan * ATM/Debit card * Deposit interest rate * Credit interest rate * Other run lockers facility, internet banking, EFT Clearing function etc Review of Literature Literature review provides available research with respect to the selected topic of the project or the research findings by an author which has been done with respect to the research topic. This chapter provides the overall view of the available literature with respect to the topic of the project.The review of the related research works are described as under- 1. A research work on the topic On the appraisal on consumer credit banking products with the asset quality frame A multi ple criteria application. done by Panagiotis Xidonas, Alexandros Flamos, Sortirios Koussouris, Dimitrious Askouins Ioannis Psarras from National Technical University of Athens in 2007 says that Asset quality refers to the likelihood that the banks earning assets will continue to perform and requires both a qualitative and quantifiable assessment. closing problems like the internal appraisal of banking products, are problems with strong multiple-criteria character and it seems that the methodological framework of doubled Criteria Decision Making could provide a reliable solution. In this paper, the Asset Quality banking indicators are the, so called, criteria, the value of these indicators are the, so called, scratchs in each criterion and the P. R. O. METH. E. E. Preference Ranking Organization Method of Enrichment Evaluations, Brans & Vincke (1985) Multiple Criteria method is applied, towards modelling banking products appraisal problems.A Multiple Criteria process, strictly m athematically defined, integrates the behaviour of each indicator-criterion and utilizes each score in order to rank the so called alternatives, i. e. categories of banking products. 2. The research Paper on Evaluation of decision support systems for credit management decisions by S. Kanungo, S. Sharma, P. K. Jain from Department of studies, IIT Delhi have conducted a study to evaluate the talent of decision support system (DSS) for credit management. This study formed a larger initiative to attack the effectiveness of the I.T based credit management process at SBI. Such a study was necessitated since credit appraisal has become an integral sub-function of the Indian banks in view of growing incidence of non-performing assets. The DSS they have assessed was a credit appraisal system developed by Quuattro pro at SBI. This system helps in analysis of balance sheets, Calculation of financial ratios, cash flow analysis, future projections, sensitivity analysis and risk military rating as per SBI norms. They have also used a strong Quassi experimental design called Solomons quadruplesome group design for the assessment.In the experiment the managers of SBI who attended the training programme were the subjects the experiment consisted of the measurements that were taken as pre and post tests. An experimental intervention was applied between the pre-tests and the pro-tests. The intervention or stimulus consisted of DSS training and use. There were four groups in the experiment. The stimulus remained constant as the they took care to ensure that the course content as well as the instructors remained the same during the course of the experiment. Two were experimental groups and two were control groups.All four groups underwent training in credit management between the pre and the post tests. Results from research shows that while the DSS is effective, improvement needs to be done in the methodology to assess such improvements. Moreover such assessment frameworks wh ile being adequate from a DSS-centric viewpoint do not respond to the assessment of DSS in an organizational setting . In the concluding section they have discussed how this evaluative framework can be strengthened to initiate an use that will allow the long term and possibly the only meaningful evaluation framework for such a system. . The research paper on the topic Towards an appraisal of the FMHA farm credit program A case study of the efficiency of borrower by S. Mehdian, Wm. McD. Herr, Phil Eberle, and Richard Grabowski have studied that the a production frontier methodology is used to measure the overall efficiency of a sample of farmers home administration(FMHA) compared to non participants. The study did not find evidence that the efficiency FMHA farms improved between a time period Results indicated that overall efficiency of FMHA borrowers is associated with selected financial characteristics of the farms.A review of the literature shows that agricultural finance special ists have not been successful in evaluating whether FMHA pro- grams improve the efficiency and income of probability of success. Liberal loan policies Eligible borrowers. Inadequate evaluation of the FMHA program occurs partly because of because the difficulty of adequately deter-mining the impacts of changes in the econ- borrowers in a more normal period of the loan.This study addressed these difficulties by utilizing a nonparametric production frontier technique to measure overall efficiency and a matched pair statistical procedure to measure how efficiency of farms receiving FMHA credit changed relative to a Non-FMHA farmers. 4. The book named Financial Analysis for Bank Lending in Liberalised Economy by Sampat. P. Singh and Dr. S. Singh have discussed the subject financial analysis for bank lending has assumed considerable importance, particularly since early 1990s when, like most of the countries, India opted for the policy of liberalisation and globalisation after 1991.The pre sent volume is meant to be a standard reference as well as text book on the varied facets of financial analysis with reference to credit management by Banks and Financial Institutions. The book consists of three parts. Part I discusses the concepts and tools of Financial Analysis Part II explains various concepts of working capital in its historical context while Part III demonstrates the application of these tools in the changing context of liberalised economy by focusing on new concepts like Credit Worthiness, Risk-Analysis, Credit Rating, Products-Differentiation, Pricing-Differentiation, Asset-Liability Management, etc.The book contains- Bank Lending and Industrial Finance in India ,Basic Economics for Bankers and Business Managers ,Introduction to breedamentals Accounting Principles ,Profit and red ink Account (Operating Statement) ,Analysis of Profit and Loss Account (Operating Statement) ,Structure and Analysis of Balance Sheet ,Ratios as Tools of Financial Statements Analy sis ,Accounting Flows Income, Cash and Funds ,Break-even Analysis and Margin of Safety ,Appraisal of Capital Projects , freshly Conceptual Framework for Analysis, Liberalised Era and New Focus of Bank Lending ,Managing running(a) Capital by Strategic Choice , Financing Working Capital Conceptual and Historical Exposition,Creditworthiness and Credit Rating At Centre stage Nucleus of Credit Appraisal , Working Capital Management-I MPBF system of rules of Appraisal and Bifurcation of Fund- base Limit in Two Components Working Capital Management-II Alternative Methods of Appraisal ,Working Capital Management-III Follow-up and Supervision , Appraisal of a New Project Involving Term Loan , Management of Problem Accounts , Management of Non-Performing Assets (NPAs), Rehabilitation of Sick Industrial Units, Working Capital Management Concepts and Techniques , 1st Committee on Financial Sector Reform and the 2nd Committee on Banking System Reform (Known as Narasimham Committee Repor t, 1998). 5. The research paper on the topic Competitive analysis in banking Appraisal of the methodologies by Nicola Cetorelli has discussed about the U. S. banking industry has experienced significant structural changes as the result of an incisive process of consolidation. From 1975 to 1997, the number of commercial banks decreased by about 35 percent, from 14,318 to 9,215.Since the early 1980s, there have been an average of more than 400 mergers per year (see Avery et al. , 1997, and Simmons and Stavins, 1998). The relaxation of intrastate branching restrictions, effective to differing degrees in all states by 1992, and the passage in 1994 of the Riegle. Neal Interstate Banking and Branching Efficiency Act, which allows bank holding companies to acquire banks in any state and, since June 1, 1997, to open interstate branches, is certainly accelerating the process of consolidation. These significant changes raise important policy concerns. On the one hand, one could argue that ba nks are merging to fully exploit potential economies of scale and/or scope.The possible improvements in efficiency may translate into well-being gains for the economy, to the extent that customers pay lower prices for banks. services or are able to obtain higher quality services or services that could not have been offered before. 1 On the other hand, from the point of view of public policy it is as important to focus on the effect of this restructuring process on the competitive conditions of the banking industry. Do banks gain market power from merging? If so, they will be able to charge higher than competitive prices for their products, thus inflicting welfare costs that could more than offset any presumed benefit associated with mergers.In this article, analysis of competition in the banking industry is done highlighting a very fundamental issue How market power is measured and how do regulators confide on accurate and effective procedures to evaluate the competitive effects of a merger. Credit Philosophy Policy with regards to Punjab National Bank An ideal advance is the one given to a reliable customer for an thanksgiving purpose with adequate experience, safe in knowledge that the money will be used to benefit and repayment will be made within a reasonable period from trade receipts or known maturities due on or about given dates. Credit philosophy To achieve credit expansion required for sustaining the profitability of the bank and emphasis on quality assets, profitable relationships and prudent growth. CREDIT POLICY Bank follows following broad policy imperatives- Reduction in dependence upon short term corporate loans, especially unsecured exposures. * Aiming to achieve more sanctions at levels closer to the customer. * Changing the go of the portfolio in favour of better diffused and higher yielding credit. * Building competencies in credit management through training progression of self directed learning. Objectives of credit policy 1. A balanced growth of credit portfolio, which does not compromise safety. 2. Adoption of a forward looking and market responsive approach for moving into profitable new areas on lending which emerge, within the pre determined exposure ceilings. 3. Sound risk management practices to identify measure, monitor and control risks. 4.Maximize interest yields from credit portfolio through a judicious management of varying spreads of loan assets based upon their size, credit rating and tenure. 5. Leverage on strong relationships with existing long-standing clients to source a bulk of new business by addressing their requirements comprehensively. 6. Ensure due compliance of various regulatory norms including CAR, income recognition and asset classification 7. Accomplish balanced development of credit to various sectors and geographical regions. 8. come upon growth of credit to priority sectors / subsectors and continue to surpass the targets stipulated by reserve bank of India. 9.Using of pri cing as a tool of competitive advantage ensuring however that earnings are protected. 10. Develop and maintain intensify competencies in credit management at all levels through a combination of training initiatives, promotion of self directed learning and dissemination of best practices. Objectives in Credit To maintain healthy balance between- * Credit volumes * Earnings * Asset quality within the framework of regulatory prescriptions, corporate goals and banks social responsibilities. Introduction to loans Loans are advances for fixed amounts repayable on demand or in instalment. They are normally made in protrusion sums and interest is paid on the entire amount.The borrower cannot draw funds beyond the amount sanctioned. A key function of the Bank is deploying funds for income-yielding assets. A major part of Banks assets are the loans and advances portfolio and investments in approved securities. Loans Advances refer to long-term and short-term credit facilities to various ty pes of borrowers and non-fund facilities like Bank Guarantees, Letters of Credit, Letters of Solvency etc. Bill facilities represent structured commitments which are negotiable claims having a market by way of negotiable instruments. Thus, Banks extend credit facilities by way of fund-based long-term and short-term loans and advances as also by way of non-fund facilities.Loans/Advances Classification of Loans Loans/Advances Pre-shipment Finance stick on shipment Finance Letter of Credit Bank Guarantee Term Loan Export Finance Bill Discounting Cash Credit retail Loan Non-Fund Based Fund Based Fund Based Bank provides credit in various forms. These are broadly classified into two categories- Fund based and Non Fund Based. Fund based refers to the type of credit where cash is without delay involved i. e. where bank provides money to the seeker in anticipation of getting it back. Where as in a Non-fund Based, Bank doesnt pay cash directly but gives assurance or takes guarantee on beh alf of its customer to pay if they fail to do so.In case on Fund Based there are different categories of loans which are discussed as follows I. RETAIL LOANS- Retail banking in India is not a new phenomenon. It has always been prevalent in India in various forms. For the last few years it has become synonymous with mainstream banking for many banks. The typical products offered in the Indian retail banking segment are- * Housing loans * Consumer loans for purchase of durables * Auto loans * Educational loans * Credit Cost. * Personal loans Retail loan is the practice of loaning money to individuals rather than institutions. Retail lending is done by banks, credit unions, and savings and loan associations.These institutions make loans for automobile purchases, home purchases, medical care, home repair, vacations, and other consumer uses. Retail lending has taken a prominent role in the lending activities of banks, as the availability of credit and the number of products offered for r etail lending have grown. The amounts loaned through retail lending are usually smaller than those loaned to businesses. Retail lending may take the form of instalment loans, which must be paid off little by little over the course of years, or non-instalment loans, which are paid off in one lump sum. These loans are marketed under attractive brand names to differentiate the products offered by different banks.As the Report on Trend and Progress of India, 2007-08 has shown that the loan values of these retail lending typically range between Rs. 20, 000 to Rs. 100 lakh. The loans are generally for duration of five to seven years with housing loans granted for a interminable duration of 15 years. Credit card is another rapidly growing sub-segment of this product group. In recent past retail lending has turned out to be a key profit driver for banks with retail portfolio. The overall impairment of the retail loan portfolio worked out much less then the blunt NPA ratio for the entire l oan portfolio. Within the retail segment, the housing loans had the least gross asset impairment.In fact, sell make ample business sense in the banking sector. Basic reasons that have contributed to the retail growth in India are- * First, economic prosperity and the consequent increase in purchasing power has given a fillip to a consumer boom. Note that during the 10 years after 1992, Indias economy grew at an average rate of 6. 8 percent and continues to grow at the almost the same rate not many countries in the world match this performance. * Second, changing consumer demographics indicate vast potential for growth in consumption both qualitatively and quantitatively. India is one of the countries having highest proportion (70%) of the population below 35 years of age (young population).The BRIC report of the Goldman-Sachs, which predicted a knowing future for Brazil, Russia, India and China, mentioned Indian demographic advantage as an important positive factor for India. * Third, technological factors played a major role. Convenience banking in the form of debit cards, internet and phone-banking, anywhere and anytime banking has attracted many new customers into the banking field. Technological innovations relating to increasing use of credit / debit cards, ATMs, direct debits and phone banking has contributed to the growth of retail banking in India. * Fourth, the Treasury income of the banks, which had strengthened the bottom lines of banks for the past few years, has been on the decline during the last two years. In such a scenario, retail business provides a good vehicle of profit maximisation.Considering the fact that retails share in impaired assets is far lower than the overall bank loans and advances, retail loans have put comparatively less provisioning burden on banks apart from diversifying their income streams. * Fifth, decline in interest rates have also contributed to the growth of retail credit by generating the demand for such credit. According to K V Kamath, the changing demographic profile and a downward trend of the interest rates will propel retail credit in India. There is a huge retail credit prospect that is surfacing. Banks have low penetration in this segment currently. But it is the one area that is providing the momentum in the banking business now, India has among the lowest penetration of retail loans in Asia.Though the sector has been growing at around 15 per cent, there is still a huge opportunity to tap into. Middle and -high-income homes in India has increased to 2. 57 crore (25. 7 million). Interest rates on retail loans have been dropping rapidly too. For instance residential mortgages slumped by 7 per cent over the last four years. The entry of a number of banks in India in the last few years has helped provide increased coverage and a number of new products in the market, says Kamath. II. WORKING CAPITAL / CASH CREDIT Cash credit is a short-term cash loan to a company. A bank provides this t ype of funding, but only after the required warrantor is given to secure the loan.Once a security for repayment has been given, the business that receives the loan can continuously draw from the bank up to a certain stick amount. The bank provides certain amount to the company for its day to day working keeping certain margin in hand. III. TERM LOANS A bank loan to a company, with a fixed maturity and often featuring amortization of principal. If this loan is in the form of a line of credit, the funds are drawn down shortly after the agreement is signed. Otherwise, the borrower usually uses the funds from the loan soon after they become available. Bank term loans are very a common kind of lending. Term loans are the basic vanilla commercial loan. They typically carry fixed interest rates, and monthly or quarterly repayment schedules and include a set maturity date.Bankers tend to categorize term loans into two categories * Intermediate-term loans Usually running less than three years, these loans are generally repaid in monthly instalments (sometimes with balloon payments) from a businesss cash flow. According to the American Bankers Association, repayment is often tied directly to the utile life of the asset being financed. * Long-term loans These loans are commonly set for more than three years. Most are between three and 10 years, and some run for as long as 20 years. Long-term loans are collateralized by a businesss assets and typically require quarterly or monthly payments derived from profits or cash flow. These loans usually carry wording that limits the amount of additional financial commitments the business may take on including other debts but also dividends or principals salaries), and they sometimes require that a certain amount of profit be set-aside to repay the loan. Appropriate For Established small businesses that can leverage sound financial statements and substantial down payments to minimize monthly payments and total loan costs. Repay ment is typically linked in some way to the item financed. Term loans require collateral and a relatively rigorous approval process but can help reduce risk by minimizing costs. Before deciding to finance equipment, borrowers should be sure they can they make full use of ownership-related benefits, such as depreciation, and should compare the cost with that leasing. Supply Abundant but highly differentiated.The degree of financial strength required to receive loan approval can vary tremendously from bank to bank, depending on the level of risk the bank is willing to take on. IV. BILL DISCOUNTING While discounting a bill, the Bank buys the bill (i. e. Bill of fill in or Promissory Note) before it is due and credits the value of the bill after a discount charge to the customers account. The transaction is practically an advance against the security of the bill and the discount represents the interest on the advance from the date of purchase of the bill until it is due for payment. Bi lls of exchange- A bill of exchange or draft is a written order by the drawer to the drawee to pay money to the payee.A common type of bill of exchange is the cheque (check in American English), defined as a bill of exchange drawn on a banker and payable on demand. Bills of exchange are used primarily in international trade, and are written orders by one person to his bank to pay the postman a specific sum on a specific date. Prior to the advent of paper currency, bills of exchange were a common means of exchange. They are not used as often today. A bill of exchange is an unconditional order in writing addressed by one person to another, signed by the person giving it, requiring the person to whom it is addressed to pay on demand or at fixed or ascertainable future time a sum certain in money to order or to bearer.It is essentially an order made by one person to another to pay money to a trey person. A bill of exchange requires in its inception three partiesthe drawer, the drawe e, and the payee. The person who draws the bill is called the drawer. He gives the order to pay money to third party. The party upon whom the bill is drawn id called the drawee. He is the person to whom the bill is addressed and who is ordered to pay. He becomes an acceptor when he indicates his willingness to pay the bill. The party in whose favor the bill is drawn or is payable is called the payee. Promissory Note- A promissory note is a written promise by the maker to pay money to the payee.Bank note is frequently transferred as a promissory note, a promissory note made by a bank and payable to bearer on demand. A maker of a promissory note promises to unconditionally pay the payee (beneficiary) a specific amount on a specified date. A promissory note is an unconditional promise to pay a specific amount to bearer or to the order of a named person, on demand or on a specified date. A negotiable promissory note is unconditional promise in writing made by one person to another, sign ed by the maker, engaging to pay on demand, or at fixed or determinable future time, sum certain in money to order or to bearer V. export FINANCE- This type of a credit facility is provided to exporters who export their goods to different places.It is divided into two parts- pre-shipment finance and post-shipment finance. * Pre incumbrance Finance is issued by a financial institution when the seller want the payment of the goods before shipment. * Post Shipment Finance is a kind of loan provided by a financial institution to an exporter or seller against a shipment that has already been made. This type of export finance is granted from the date of extending the credit after shipment of the goods to the realization date of the exporter proceeds. Exporters dont wait for the importer to deposit the funds. Non Fund Based loans generate income for the bank without committing the funds of the bank. Bank generates substantial income under this head.There are two types of credit under thi s category which are discussed as follows- I. BANK GUARANTEE- A bank guarantee is a written contract given by a bank on the behalf of a customer. By issuing this guarantee, a bank takes responsi